International Journal of Education and Cognitive Sciences

Development, Validation, and Evaluation of a Psychological Hardiness Training Package for Older Adults Residing in Nursing Homes

Maryam Hojjati iD , Reza Soltani Shal ^* iD , Sajjad Rezaei iD

Purpose: The present study aimed to develop, validate, and evaluate the effectiveness of a psychological hardiness–based training package on life satisfaction and psychological well-being among older adults residing in nursing homes.

Methods and Materials: In this sequential exploratory mixed-methods study, the training package was initially developed based on in-depth interviews with 17 participants, including older adults and specialists, and its content validity was subsequently confirmed by 10 experts. In the quasi-experimental phase, using a pretest–posttest design with a control group, 30 older adults residing in nursing homes in Rasht were matched and then randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 15) and a control group (n = 15). The experimental group received twelve 70-minute intervention sessions over 6 weeks. The instruments included the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) and the short form of Ryff's Scales of Psychological Well-Being (RSPWB). Data were analyzed using univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA).

Findings: The qualitative analysis resulted in the identification of 10 key components and the development of a 12-session training package. The quantitative findings indicated that the intervention significantly increased life satisfaction (p < .001) and the total psychological well-being score (p < .001) in the experimental group. At the component level, self-acceptance, positive relations with others, purpose in life, and autonomy improved significantly (p < .001), whereas changes in environmental mastery and personal growth were not statistically significant.

Conclusion: The developed training package, grounded in a culturally contextualized structure and demonstrating high validity, represents an effective and empowering intervention for improving dynamic dimensions of psychological well-being and life satisfaction among older adults. Its integration into supportive programs provided by nursing homes is therefore recommended.

Effectiveness of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) on Experiential Avoidance, Psychological Symptoms, and Emotional Schemas in Suicide-Loss Survivors

Somayeh Aminian Mohammadi iD , Parvaneh Mohammadkhani ^* iD , Mohsen Saeidmanesh iD , Azade Abooei iD

Purpose: This study examined the effectiveness of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) therapy in reducing experiential avoidance, psychological symptoms, and negative emotional schemas among suicide-loss survivors.

Methods and Materials: A quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design with a control group and a two-month follow-up was used. Thirty suicide-loss survivors were selected through convenience sampling and randomly assigned to an EMDR group or a control group (15 participants per group). Participants completed the Multidimensional Experiential Avoidance Questionnaire, the Brief Symptom Inventory, and the Leahy Emotional Schemas Scale. The EMDR group received ten weekly 60-minute sessions, whereas the control group received no intervention during the study period. Outcomes were assessed at pretest, posttest, and follow-up and analyzed using multivariate analysis of covariance in SPSS version 24.

Findings: Mean scores for experiential avoidance, psychological symptoms, and negative emotional schemas decreased in the EMDR group at posttest and follow-up relative to pretest, whereas the control group showed little change. Group effects at posttest and follow-up were statistically significant (p < .05). Reported effect sizes at posttest and follow-up were .230 and .189 for experiential avoidance, .880 and .540 for psychological symptoms, and .450 and .230 for emotional schemas, respectively.

Conclusion: EMDR was effective in reducing experiential avoidance, psychological symptoms, and negative emotional schemas among individuals bereaved by suicide. The findings support the potential clinical value of EMDR as a trauma-focused intervention for the psychological consequences of suicide bereavement.

Effectiveness of a Three-Stage Combined Protocol of Progressive Muscle Relaxation, Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation, and Virtual Reality–Guided Mindfulness on Preoperative Anxiety in Dental Surgery Patients

Behnood Khorsand Nobahar iD , Pegah Farokhzad ^* iD , Mina Mojtabaee iD

Purpose: This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of a three-stage combined protocol comprising progressive muscle relaxation, cranial electrotherapy stimulation, and virtual reality–guided mindfulness in reducing state anxiety and dental anxiety among patients undergoing dental surgery.

Methods and Materials: This quasi-experimental study employed a pretest–posttest design with an intervention group and a control group. The study population consisted of adult patients undergoing dental surgery at the Implant House Dental Clinic in District 3 of Tehran during 2025–2026. Forty eligible patients were selected through convenience sampling and allocated nonrandomly to an intervention group and a control group, with 20 participants in each group. The intervention group received an initial 45-minute instructional session, four 20-minute sessions combining progressive muscle relaxation with cranial electrotherapy stimulation, and virtual reality–guided mindfulness on the day of surgery. The control group received routine clinical care without any psychological, neuromodulatory, or virtual reality intervention. State anxiety was measured using the state subscale of the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory, and dental anxiety was assessed using the Dental Anxiety Inventory. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and analysis of covariance in SPSS version 26, with pretest scores entered as covariates and the significance level set at .05.

Findings: After controlling for baseline scores, analysis of covariance revealed a statistically significant difference between the intervention and control groups in posttest state anxiety, F(1, 37) = 34.11, p < .001, partial η² = .47. A statistically significant between-group difference was also found in posttest dental anxiety, F(1, 37) = 35.61, p < .001, partial η² = .49. Both effect sizes were large, indicating that the combined intervention produced substantial reductions in state anxiety and dental anxiety compared with routine clinical care.

Conclusion: The three-stage combined protocol of progressive muscle relaxation, cranial electrotherapy stimulation, and virtual reality–guided mindfulness was effective in reducing state anxiety and dental anxiety in patients undergoing dental surgery and may represent a practical nonpharmacological intervention for managing preoperative anxiety in dental settings.

Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Parental Burnout Questionnaire for Parents of Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Rezvan Maleki iD , Masoud Asadi ^* iD , Zahra Jahanbakhshi iD

Purpose: The present study aimed to develop and evaluate the psychometric properties of the Parental Burnout Questionnaire for Parents of Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

Methods and Materials: This study employed a mixed-methods (qualitative–quantitative) approach using a sequential exploratory design. The qualitative phase was conducted based on Charmaz’s (2020) constructivist grounded theory methodology and included 15 parents of adolescents aged 14–18 years with ADHD in Arak, Iran, who were selected through purposive sampling. Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews and analyzed through four stages of initial, focused, axial, and theoretical coding. The quantitative phase employed a correlational design and instrument validation procedure and was conducted among 200 parents (100 mothers and 100 fathers) of adolescents with ADHD in Arak, selected through convenience sampling. Face validity was assessed with the participation of 40 parents, and content validity was evaluated by 12 specialists in psychology and counseling. Construct validity was examined using second-order confirmatory factor analysis and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), normed fit index (NFI), and goodness-of-fit (GOF) indices. Instrument reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and composite reliability (CR). Convergent and divergent validity were also examined by calculating Pearson correlation coefficients with the Autism Parenting Stress Scale (A), Brief Parental Burnout Scale (BPBs), and Parenting Self-Agency Measure (PSAM). SPSS version 25 and SmartPLS version 3 were used for quantitative data analysis.

Findings: Analysis of the qualitative data resulted in the development of a 37-item questionnaire comprising three components: the multilevel blaming system, erosion of emotional capital, and psychosomatic consequences. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the total questionnaire was 0.97, and the composite reliability coefficients of the components ranged from 0.92 to 0.94. Content validity (I-CVI ranging from 0.92 to 1.00) and face validity (CVI > 0.91) were satisfactory. The results of second-order confirmatory factor analysis supported the three-factor structure of the questionnaire, with standardized factor loadings ranging from 0.49 to 0.81. Model fit indices indicated a very good fit (SRMR < 0.06, NFI > 0.90, GOF = 0.35). Convergent validity was supported by significant positive correlations with parenting stress and parental burnout (0.63 and 0.46, respectively), whereas divergent validity was supported by a significant negative correlation with parental self-efficacy (−0.47).

Conclusion: The Parental Burnout Scale for Parents of Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (PBS-ADHD) demonstrates satisfactory validity and reliability and can be used as a valid, culturally grounded instrument in studies assessing parental burnout among Iranian parents of adolescents with ADHD.

Structured Psychological Interventions for Adults with Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder and Inadequate Treatment Response: A Scoping Review

Seyed Naser Moshir Estekhareh iD , Hamidreza Aghamohammadian Sharbaf ^* iD , Seyed Kazem Rasoolzadeh Tabatabaei iD , Fatemeh Shahabizadeh iD

Purpose: This scoping review mapped structured psychological interventions for adults with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and an inadequate treatment response, described the available evidence, and identified research gaps.

Methods and Materials: PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, PsycINFO, the Cochrane Library, SID, Magiran, and Civilica were searched for English- and Persian-language studies published from January 2010 to May 2026. Inadequate treatment response was defined as nonresponse, partial response, or persistence of clinically significant symptoms after an adequate standard treatment. Original intervention studies of structured psychological treatments in adults were eligible. Two reviewers independently screened titles, abstracts, and full texts, resolving disagreements by consensus. Data were synthesized descriptively in accordance with PRISMA-ScR.

Findings: Of 150 records identified, 48 duplicates were removed and 102 records were screened. After 70 records were excluded, 32 full-text reports were assessed; 17 were excluded, leaving 15 reports representing 14 unique studies. CBT/ERP-based interventions formed the largest evidence cluster and included extended outpatient, intensive, concentrated, residential, inpatient, and pharmacotherapy-augmented formats. ACT and MBCT were examined less often, while inference-based therapy and schema therapy were supported by limited preliminary evidence. Although most reports described symptom reductions or improvement in selected outcomes, heterogeneity in definitions, study designs, concurrent treatments, and follow-up limited causal and comparative interpretation

Conclusion: Evidence remains limited and heterogeneous. CBT/ERP is the dominant framework, whereas evidence for other approaches is smaller and largely preliminary. Standardized definitions, clearer reporting of prior treatments, adequately powered comparative trials, and longer follow-up are needed.

Effectiveness of Bigdeli Neuro-Cognitive Learning in Improving Brain-Function Mapping Indicators Associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Mojtaba Bigdeli Shamloo iD , Hamid Kamarzarin ^* iD , Mohana Mohammadi iD , Fatemeh Pirzal Mobarak iD

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of Bigdeli Neuro-Cognitive Learning in improving EEG-based brain-function mapping indicators associated with ASD-related neurocognitive dysregulation.

Methods and Materials: A quasi-experimental pretest–posttest design with a control group was used. The sample included 66 participants with ASD-related symptoms, assigned to an intervention group (n = 33) and a control group (n = 33). The intervention group received six individual sessions of Bigdeli Neuro-Cognitive Learning over a three-month period, with sessions held approximately once every two weeks, while the control group did not receive the intervention. EEG-based brain-function mapping was conducted under open-eye conditions at pretest and posttest. The main outcomes included absolute and relative power indicators, high-beta activity, hyperconnectivity, and hypoconnectivity.

Findings: After controlling for baseline scores, the intervention group showed significantly lower posttest scores than the control group in absolute delta, absolute theta, relative delta, and hyperconnectivity. These findings indicate improvement in selected neurofunctional indicators related to slow-wave regulation and excessive connectivity patterns.

Conclusion: Bigdeli Neuro-Cognitive Learning may be a promising complementary intervention for improving selected brain-function mapping indicators associated with ASD-related neurocognitive dysregulation. However, future randomized studies with standardized behavioral ASD measures and follow-up assessments are needed.

The Effectiveness of Stress-Management-Based Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy on Bruxism Severity, Anxiety, and Sleep Quality in Patients with Sleep Bruxism

Ali Nasr Esfahani iD , Mohammad Shayan Kolahdouzan ^* iD

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of stress-management-based cognitive-behavioral therapy on bruxism severity, anxiety, and sleep quality in patients with sleep bruxism.

Methods and Materials: A quasi-experimental pretest–posttest–follow-up design with experimental and control groups was used. Sixty patients with probable sleep bruxism were selected from dental and oral medicine clinics and assigned to an experimental group (n = 30) or a control group (n = 30). The experimental group received eight weekly 90-minute sessions of stress-management-based cognitive-behavioral therapy, while the control group received routine dental recommendations. Bruxism severity, anxiety, and sleep quality were assessed at pretest, posttest, and six-week follow-up. Data were analyzed using mixed-design repeated-measures ANOVA and Bonferroni comparisons.

Findings: Significant time × group interactions were found for bruxism severity, F(2, 116) = 58.92, p < .001, ηp² = .504; anxiety, F(1.71, 99.18) = 44.85, p < .001, ηp² = .436; and sleep quality, F(1.82, 105.67) = 47.74, p < .001, ηp² = .452. Posttest and follow-up comparisons showed significantly greater improvement in the experimental group than the control group (p < .001).

Conclusion: Stress-management-based cognitive-behavioral therapy was effective in reducing bruxism severity, anxiety, and poor sleep quality in patients with sleep bruxism.

Comparison of the Effectiveness of Schema Therapy and Behavioral Activation on Depression Severity and Sleep Quality among University Students with Major Depressive Disorder

Faezeh Arashk iD , Sayed Abbas Haghayegh ^* iD , Sedigheh Rezaei Dehnavi iD , Sheida Jabalameli iD

Purpose: This study compared the effectiveness of schema therapy and behavioral activation in reducing depression severity and improving sleep quality among university students with major depressive disorder.

Methods and Materials: A quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design with a control group and two-month follow-up was used. Forty-five students were purposively selected and randomly assigned to schema therapy, behavioral activation, and control groups. Following attrition, 40 participants completed depression assessments and 39 completed sleep-quality assessments. The intervention groups received group treatments, whereas the control group received no intervention. Depression severity was measured using the Beck Depression Inventory-II, and sleep quality was assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Data were analyzed using mixed analysis of variance and Bonferroni comparisons.

Findings: Significant time, group, and group-by-time effects were found for depression severity. The interaction effect was significant, F(2.473, 45.769) = 49.408, p < .001, partial eta squared = .728. Significant effects were observed for sleep quality, including a group-by-time interaction, F(2.261, 40.716) = 7.461, p = .001, partial eta squared = .293. Both interventions significantly reduced depression severity and poor sleep-quality scores from pretest to posttest, and improvements remained stable at follow-up. Treatment groups performed better than the control group. No significant differences were found between schema therapy and behavioral activation at posttest or follow-up.

Conclusion: Schema therapy and behavioral activation were comparably effective in reducing depression severity and improving sleep quality among students with major depressive disorder. Both approaches may be applied in counseling settings, with treatment selection guided by characteristics and maintaining mechanisms.

International Journal of Education and Cognitive Sciences

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Effectiveness of a Neuropsychology-Based Therapeutic Package on Distress Tolerance and Emotional Ambivalence in Individuals with Multiple Sclerosis

Comparison of the Effectiveness of Self-Efficacy Training and Mindfulness Training on the Academic Motivation of Female Secondary School Students

Examining and Evaluating the Effectiveness of the Curriculum Planning Course Using an Approach Aimed at Enhancing Self-Regulation and Active Learner Participation (A Case Study of Islamic Azad University Students)

Application of Artificial Intelligence Models to Explore the Optimal Structural/Predictive Model of Gender Transition Request Based on Childhood Trauma

Exploring the Components of Social and Emotional Competencies (SEC) for Iranian EFL Teachers: Teachers’ Perceptions in Focus

Effectiveness of Self-Regulatory Strategies Training on Achievement Motivation and Academic Self-Concept among Bilingual Male Middle School Students

The Association Between Psychological Distress and Pain Perception in Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome: The Mediating Role of Behavioral Activation and Inhibition Systems

The Effectiveness of Meaning-Centered Group Therapy on the Dimensions of Illness Attitude in Women with Amputation-Related Grief Syndrome Due to Cancer

Designing a Model of Fear of Missing Out Based on Identity Styles with the Mediating Role of Behavioral Brain Systems in Female University Students Using Cyberspace

The Effectiveness of Self-efficacy Training on Self-handicapping and Hope of Probation Students

A Phenomenological Study of the Spiritual Education Curriculum in Lower Secondary Education with a Dynamic Lifestyle Approach

The Relationship Between Attitudes Toward E-Learning and Information Literacy: The Mediating Role of Academic Resilience

Meta-analysis of the Effectiveness of Mindfulness-Based Interventions on Rumination: A Systematic Review of Iranian Trials

The Effect of AI-Supported Microlearning on the Development of Language Skills

The Effectiveness of a Marital Violence Model on Women’s Psychological Well-Being

Comparison of the Effectiveness of Pharmacotherapy, Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, and Emotion-Focused Therapy on Emotion Regulation and Hope for Life in Hospitalized Children with Cancer

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